There are many great traditions of Wales, but three stand out that make it culturally distinct from its neighbors: the Eisteddfod the
Noson Lawen and the Cymanfa Ganu. Of these, the Eisteddfod is probably the most ancient and certainly the mostpopular.
Most towns and villages conduct an annual Eisteddfod in one way or another. It is simply a competition, but the word translates as a
"Chairing," with the winner being awarded a chair upon which he is ceremoniously crowned to great acclaim.
Winners of local eisteddfodau (pl) go on to compete on a county or regional level,eventually reaching the Royal National Eisteddfod of
Wales (Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru ) in which they compete with others from all parts of the country.
The "National" is the largest folk festival in Europe: held in a different town the first week in August each year.
Alternating between a venue in South Wales one year and North Wales the next, it draws vast crowds to enjoy its week long activities.

Eisteddfod: A Cultural Competition

The idea of the Eisteddfod is very ancient. It began, as did many Welsh institutions, as a challenge from outside. This was the Norman
invasion of Britain and the consequent subjugation of much of the population of Wales to Norman rule.
In Wales proper, the coming of the Normans had the paradoxical effect of bringing about a brilliant new literary culture that was both
Welsh and European in its outlook. There was an explosion of literary activity mainly made possible through the proliferation, through-
out Wales, of monasteries and friaries, with their reverence for historical and literary traditions and their expertise in strengthening and
preserving those traditions. Of great significance for Welsh culture was the revival of the bardic orders, indeed, the expansion of those
orders led to the first eisteddfod, for the bards were anxious to come together in the spirit of competition.
It is this era, too, that saw the blossoming of the Arthurian tradition, in which the Welsh people thought of themselves as the true
British people, the heirs to Arthur and the glorious heroic age attributed to his time.

A "sitting" of bards, or poets, took place as early as 1176, when the Lord Rhys convened the people of Wales to Cardigan (Aberteifi).
Rhys (Rhys ap Grufffudd) had been appointed justice of South Wales by Henry II, and his rights to the territories he controlled were
recognized by the king. The purpose of this meeting, apart from demonstrating the position of preeminence held by Lord Rhys among
the Welsh princes, was to regulate the business of the bardic orders.
Metrical rules were set up, and licenses were given to those who had completed their apprenticeship. The event is described by an
anonymous writer in the historical document, "Brut y Tywysogion":

At Christmas in that year the Lord Rhys ap Gruffudd held court in splendour at Cardigan, in the castle.
And he set two kinds of contests there; one between bards and poets, another between harpists and
crowders and pipers and various classes of music-craft.
And he had two chairs set for the victors.

Other noteworthy eisteddfodau were held at Carmarthen in 1451, and at Caerwys in 1523 and 1567, when further rules were drawn up
and licenses granted. After Caerwys, with the gradual break-up or anglicization of some of the great families of Wales and the loss of
their patronage, the tradition of the early Eisteddfod, for all practical purposes, became extinct, and it was only thanks to the vivid
imagination of an 18th century London Welshman that it survived and flourished anew.

There is a Welsh expression that translates as "The best Welshmen live outside of Wales," and it is noticeable that most advocates
of Welsh nationhood in the late 18th century lived in London.
It was there that the visionary Edward Williams, better known to posterity by his bardic title Iolo Morganwg, in a stirring speech to the
London Welsh Society, gave his spellbound listeners a sense of what it meant to belong to the ancient Celtic race and what they
could do to ensure that the ancient Welsh traditions became better known and handed down to posterity.
In 1792, a dramatic address by another London Welshman, Sir William Jones had announced the discovery of North America three
hundred years before Columbus by Prince Madoc. Jones spoke of the so-called Welsh Indians, descendants of Madoc's explorers,
whom he praised as "a free and distinct people, who have preserved their liberty, language, and some trace of their religion to this very
day." Though Jones' discoveries were later discounted, the myth of the founding of America by Madoc and a group of fellow Welsh
explorers has persisted; it plays a great part in much Welsh literature written subsequent to the late 18th century.
It was Jones, too, working in India, who discovered the link between the Celtic languages and Sanskrit, in which the sacred writings
of India were written, and this connection gave to the Welsh language a long and proud ancestry of which the nation could be rightly
proud.

In the winning of their independence by the Americans, the writings of Welshman Richard Price had been most influential.
When the French Revolution helped spread ideas of liberty throughout Europe, the London Welsh, in a state we can only now describe
as euphoria, saw hopes of a revival of Welsh nationhood, if not that of independence from the British Crown.
Their first gesture was reestablish the moribund Eisteddfod. The centuries old festival of poetry was to be given a national affirmation,
but first it needed a sense of dignity and a clothing of pageantry. Both were provided by the vivid imagination of Iolo Morgannwg.
As there was a sad lack of a coherent body of Welsh cultural traditions,Iolo invented them, along with an elaborate and
fancy ceremony. Most of these were entirely unknown to the Welsh people, but have since been expanded and elaborated to become
a much-loved part of the Eisteddfod ever since. It was Iolo, a stonemason from the Vale of Glamorgan, who invented the Gorsedd
(circle), the guild of bards that today plays such a prominent role in Welsh cultural affairs today and which, in their colorful "druids"
robes, provides much of the pageantry and excitement attending the events of the Eisteddfod once a year.

In the 1860's the National Eisteddfod Society was founded, and the modern era of the competitions began. The chief contest is still
thatof poetry, being separated into two categories: for the Chair, and for the Crown. It is still a marvel that thousands of people gather
together to hear the adjudications of the entries in the poetry competition and give their applause and admiration to the winning bard.
The Eisteddfod, with its modern competitions expanded to include the arts and crafts, country dancing, folk singing, choral competition
of all kinds and drama and prose contests has, over the years, provided a tremendous impetus to the fostering of Welsh as a living,
breathing language. No English is allowed on the stage of the huge pavilion.
The Eisteddfod even caters to the younger crowd with concerts by modern Welsh Rock groups, and on the Eisteddfod grounds,the
Maes (meadow) one can meet old friends, listen to music, browse through hundreds of pavilions that sell Welsh books and records,
arts and crafts, goods made of Welsh coal or slate or wool, music and musical instruments, food and drink of all kinds (though alcohol
is still forbidden); or catch up with the latest happenings at the various society tents. We must not forget, too, the yearly gathering of
the Welsh Youth League (Urdd Gobaith Cymru), second in importance only to the National Eisteddfod of Wales, which also helps keep
the language and cultural traditions of the Welsh people alive by fostering competitions in singing, dancing, poetry, prose and drama,
all conducted through the medium of the Welsh language among the nation's youth.

In addition to the National, there is another important Eisteddfod in Wales with, for many, a much broader appeal. After World War II,
with its shocking waste of life and disruption of much that had been held dear for so long, a brilliant idea came to the mind of an official
of the British Council, Welshman Harold Tudor of Coedpoeth, a little town near Wrexham, Clwyd. Harold conceived the idea of an
international folk festival, conducted very much along the lines of the Welsh National Eisteddfod, but open to competitors from all parts
of the world. The music organizer of the National, W.S. Gwynn Williams, was very receptive to the idea, especially as it entailed the
desire of the Welsh people to contribute in their own unique manner to the healing of the terrible scars left by the War. The site chosen
for the new festival was along the banks of the River Dee, in a meadow under the ancient castle of Dinas Bran, and the first Llangollen
International Musical Eisteddfod duly took place in the summer of 1947, with fourteen different nationalities represented. It has been
held each year since, attracting many thousands of spectators and hundreds of competitors, whose colorful native costumes and
delightful singing and dancing fill the streets of Llangollen for one whole week every July. (One of the early competitors was the great
tenor Luciano Pavarotti, who came with his father to sing in a choir from Italy in the early years of the festival and who returned to give
a goodwill concert in 1995).

Cymanfa Ganu: Hymn Singing

The next Welsh cultural tradition of importance is that of the Cymanfa Ganu. They would expect this to be an ancient custom for a
writer as early as Geraldus Cambrensis (Gerald of Wales) noted in 1193 that the Welsh people:

". . .in their musical concerts do not sing in unison like the inhabitants of other countries, but in many different parts...
You will hear as many different parts as there are performers who all at length unite with organic melody."

Yet the Cymanfa Ganu with its emphasis on hymn singing in parts is not an ancient event at all, for it grew out of the Temperance
Movement in the mid-nineteenth century. In South Wales, Choral societies were founded as one solution to the grave problem of drink.
Because of the unsanitary conditions in the rapidly-growing and hurriedly-thrown together housing developments, water was unsafe to
drink and beer was drunk in prodigious quantities. This was one of the worst consequences of the industrialization that was rapidly
changing the face of the valleys. To help the workers occupy their time and keep them away from the taverns, the choral movement
reflected the social aspirations of the proponents of temperance. On Christmas Day, 1837, a temperance procession marched through
the streets of Dowlais, joined by choirs from neighboring towns. Inspired by the success of the day's events, the Gwent and Glamorgan
Temperance Movement decided to hold an annual festival of choirs and at the Eisteddfod at Aberdare of 1846, choral competition was
added to the list of events. It has remained ever since as one of the most popular and best attended events. Many hymns have been
written expressly for the Cymanfa. In the chapels of Wales, choral singing of the beautiful, stirring hymns went hand-in-hand with the
temperance movement.
In areas of increasing anglicization, the chapels offered a refuge for the besieged language, and in the great religious revivals of the late
19th century, it was inevitable that certain days a year be set aside purely for the singing of hymns. These occasions became the
Cymanfaoedd Ganu,(pl) or Hymn Meetings.Conducted entirely in Welsh, they were led by conductors specially trained in bringing forth
from their congregations the Welsh hwyl or emotion. Following months of rehearsals in four-part singing, the meetings often lasted all
day long. With the decline of attendance in chapel going, especially over the last quarter of a century, many towns in Wales no longer
hold the annual Cymanfa, but the tradition has experienced a great revival in North America, where, in a different city each year,
thousands of Welsh Americans and Canadians get together to sing their beloved hymns in what has now become a four-day festival.

Llywelyn ap Gruffydd

The years that followed the death of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth saw a major reversal in the fortunes of Gwynedd, culminating in the Treaty of
Woodstock, concluded with King Henry III in 1247, a year after the death of Llywelyn's son Dafydd. Under the terms of the treaty,
Gwynedd lost all its lands to the east of the River Conwy.

In 1255, Llywelyn ap Gruffydd defeated his brothers Owain (d.1282) and Dafydd (d.1283), in battle at Bryn Derwin.
Owain was imprisoned, and Llywelyn set about reasserting the authority of Gwynedd and thereafter extending it into a supremacy over
much of the rest of Wales. In 1267 his position as overlord was recognized by Henry III in the Treaty of Montgomery when the English
king accepted Llywelyn's homage as prince of Wales. 

Ten years after his recognition as the prince of Wales by Henry III, Llywelyn was to suffer a humiliating defeat at the hands of the new
King Edward I. From the outset, Llywelyn seemed almost to go out of his way to court Edward's anger. In particular, he refused to yield
the homage and money payments owing to the king under the terms of the Treaty of Montgomery. 
He tempted fate further by arranging to marry Eleanor, daughter of rebel baron Simon de Montfort, an act destined to strain Edward's
patience to the limit.

Llywelyn began his own castle campaign by strengthening his grandfather's castles at Criccieth, Ewloe, and Dolwyddelan.
Moreover, in 1273 he started to build a new castle at Dolforwyn, high above the Severn valley, posing a challenge to the royal frontier
post at Montgomery. The prince's refusal to abandon this project was just one incident in an eventual catalogue of disagreements with
the new king.

Enough was enough, and in 1276-77 Edward had decided to settle accounts with the recalcitrant Welsh prince. Edward himself took
the field at Chester in July 1277, and by August he had some 15,600 troops in his pay. Against these odds, Llywelyn had no choice
but to sue for peace. The ensuing Treaty of Aberconwy represented a comprehensive humiliation for the prince of Wales.
Stripped of his overlordship he had won ten years earlier, Gwynedd was again reduced to its traditional heartland to the west of the 
River Conwy.

On 21 March 1282, Llywelyn's brother, Dafydd, attacked Hawarden Castle and sparked off the war of 1282-83. Llywelyn was faced with
an almost impossible dilemma. Torn between his fealty to the king and his loyalty to his brother Dafydd and his people, Llywelyn was
to side with his brother and led the Welsh resistance to the inevitable invasion by Edward I. By the end of the year Llywelyn was dead,
having been killed on 11 December in a brief engagement with English forces at Irfon Bridge near Builth Wells.

                Beaumaris Castle     
     
Beaumaris, begun in 1295, was the last and largest of the castles to be built by King Edward I in Wales.
Raised on an entirely new site without earlier buildings to fetter its  designer's creative genius, it is possibly the most sophisticated
example of medieval military architecture in Britain. This is undoubtedly the ultimate "concentric" castle, built with an almost geometric
symmetry. Conceived as an integral whole, a high inner ring of defenses is surrounded by a lower outer circuit of walls, combining an
almost unprecedented level of strength and fire power. Before the age of cannon, the attacker would surely have been faced with an
impregnable fortress. Yet, ironically, the work of  construction was never fully completed, and the castle saw little action apart from the
Civil War in the 17th century.

A castle was almost certainly planned when King Edward visited Anglesey in 1283 and designated the Welsh town of Llanfaes to be
its seat of government. At the time, resources were already stretched and any such scheme  was postponed. Then, in 1294-95, the
Welsh rose in revolt under Madog ap Llywelyn. The rebels were crushed after an arduous winter campaign, and the decision was taken
to proceed with a new castle in April 1295. 
The extent of English power is demonstrated by the fact that the entire native population of Llanfaes was forced to move to a newly
established settlement, named Newborough. The castle itself was  begun on the "fair marsh," and was given the Norman-French name
Beau Mareys. Building progressed at an astonishing speed, with some 2,600 men engaged in the work during the first year.

In sole charge of the operation was Master James of St. George, already with many years of experience in castle-building, both in
Wales and on the Continent. Even after 700 years it is not difficult to appreciate the tremendous sophistication in his elaborate design
at Beaumaris. The first line of defense was provided by a water-filled moat, some 18ft wide. At the southern end was a tidal dock for
shipping, where vessels of 40 tons laden weight could sail right up to the main  gate.
The dock was protected by the shooting deck on Gunner's Walk.

Across the moat is the low curtain wall of the outer ward, its circuit punctuated by 16 towers and two gates. On the northern side, the
Llanfaes gate was probably never completed. The gate next to the sea, on the other hand, preserves evidence of its stout wooden
doors and gruesome "murder holes" above. Once through, an attacker would still have to face 11 further obstacles before entering the
heart of the castle. These included the barbican, further "murder holes," three portcullises and several sets of doors. If the daunting
prospect of the gate-passage proved too much, the would-be attacker caught hesitating between the inner and outer walls could not
have survived for long. A rain of heavy crossfire would have poured down from all directions.

The striking thing about the inner ward s its great size. Covering about 3/4 of an acre, it was surrounded  by a further six towers and 
the two great gatehouses. Within, it is clear that there was an intention to provide lavish suites of accommodation. Both gatehouses 
were planned to have grand arrangements of state rooms at their rear, much as those completed at Harlech. The north gate, on the far
side, was only raised as far as its hall level and the projected second storey was never built. Even as it now stands, with its five great
window openings, it dominates the courtyard. Another block, of equal size, was planned for the south gate, but this was never to rise
further than its footings. Around the edges of the ward further buildings were planned and must have included a hall, kitchens, stables
and perhaps a granary. Although there is some evidence of their existence in the face of the curtain wall, it is not certain they were
ever completed.

Visitors should not miss the little chapel situated in the tower of that name. It's vaulted ceiling and pointed windows make it one of the
highlights of the castle. Also in this tower there is a fascinating exhibition on the "Castles of Edward I in Wales, and this provides
much background to the building of Beaumaris itself.

The visitor may well be left wondering why all the lavish accommodation was contemplated. In short, it was to provide the necessary
apartments for the king and, if he should marry again, his queen. Moreover, his son, the Prince of  Wales was fast approaching
marriageable age. Considering the size of both households, plus the need to accommodate royal officers, the constable, and even the
sheriff of Anglesey, the scale of these domestic arrangements is put into perspective.

Despite being planned on such a grand scale, by 1298 the funds for building Beaumaris had dried up. The king was increasingly
involved with works in Gascony and Scotland. Although there were minor building works in later times, the castle is in many ways a
blueprint which was never fully realized.

Because the description above does a good job of explaining the historical significance of Beaumaris, I will try to describe instead my
own impressions of the castle from our visits in 1994/95.

Beaumaris is a special castle. Some feel it's the most beautiful in all of Wales, while others appreciate the almost perfect symmetry
Beaumaris possesses. The image most people associate with the castle is one of swans swimming peacefully in the castle moat,
framed by Beaumaris' handsome checkered-stone exterior towers. This is the first striking aspect of the castle: its exterior beauty.

Although never completed to their planned height, Beaumaris' large exterior towers are impressive, their formidability enhanced by
handsome patterns of stone in shades of dark gray to white, adorning the exterior walls and towers. Most of the castle is surrounded
by a moat, framed by a beautiful green park complete with picnic tables. Families of ducks and swans add to the attractive setting as
does the castle's handsome gatehouse and wooden bridge, the main entrance to the castle. So, much of Beaumaris' beauty can
actually be appreciated before setting foot inside the castle!

If the castle's exterior towers can be called large, then Beaumaris' six interior towers can only be described as huge. Only William
Marshall's great tower at Pembroke Castle and William ap Thomas' tower at Raglan Castle rival the six huge inner towers at
Beaumaris. Once inside the gatehouse the dimensions of these towers become clear, if not a bit confusing. Confusing, because the
concentric design of the castle means that one set of walls and towers looks exactly like the others as you make your way around the
ward. Only differences in the front and rear gatehouses gives clues to your exact location in the outer ward!

The third thing I like about Beaumaris (and my favorite thing) are the fascinating interior passageways found inside the walls of the
inner ward. Beaumaris and Caernarfon are practically the only two Welsh castles that afford visitors an opportunity to explore
significant sections of inner wall passageways. Caernarfon's are more extensive, but chances are Beaumaris' passages won't be
packed with tourists! In other words, Beaumaris gives visitors the opportunity to explore this feature in a more intimate environment.
Don't miss seeing the lovely little chapel as part of your passageway walk, a peaceful place to stop and reflect on your surroundings.

The Castles of Wales has always recognized the importance of supporting efforts aimed at preserving the ancient Celtic language of
Wales.

"Since 1410 most Welsh people most of the time have abandoned any idea of independence as unthinkable. 

But since 1410 most Welsh people, at some time or another, if only in some secret corner of the mind, have been "out with Owain
and his barefoot scrubs."


  For more information:- Search --- britannia.com